Legal Progression of Marriage in America :: Essays Papers

Legal Progression of Marriage in America As the British colonies in North America took root, a great part of the economic growth in colonial society was predicated on the labor of imported African slaves. As the number of slaves increased significantly, especially in the southern colonies, a system of separation of the races was established. Since the beginning of the White and Black coexistence in America, Whites have suppressed the rights of Blacks in order to emphasize their racial superiority and to prohibit mixing between the races. In order to maintain their racial purity, Whites established laws making illegal the marriage of Blacks and Whites. Although anti-miscegenation laws were present in early colonial societies, the legacies have continued in the contemporary period. For example, Alabama amended its constitution in 2000 to acknowledge interracial marriages as valid and legal. For over 300 years, anti-miscegenation laws have remained generally the same, outlawing marriages between people of different races. Over time, however, definitions of who is Black have drastically changed, reflecting the status of Blacks’ in society. Anti-miscegenation laws during the era of slavery defined Blacks as having at least one Black grandparent, or one quarter â€Å"Black blood†. Later, these same laws during the Great Migration of the twentieth century, evolved to define Blacks by the â€Å"One Drop Rule,† a rule stating that one was Black if he or she had at least one Black ancestor. These laws, as represented in this paper and based on the policies of the colony and state of Virginia, were used to maintain a separation of races and, thus, to preserve the purity of Whites and to guarantee their system of White supremacy. Sent by King James I, The Virginia Company established the first colony in America in 1607 appropriately named Jamestown (History of Jamestown 1). It is generally accepted that the first Blacks were imported to America in 1619, only twelve years after the colony was established. At this point, no specific laws prohibited interracial relations, but societal taboos and religious doctrines were enough to separate Whites and Blacks from sexual contact. Such beliefs were noted in the proceedings between the governor and his council within the colony: In 1630, a man named Hugh Davis, accused of being sexual involved with a Black, was â€Å"to be soundly whipped before an assembly of Negroes and others for abusing himself to the dishonor of God and the shame of Christians by defiling his body and lying with a Negro† (Hall 602).

Clearwater Seafoods case Essay

Clearwater Seafood (Clearwater) is a seafood company located on the east coast of Canada, and Clearwater Seafood income Fund with operations around the world. As a result of the increasing importance of the Canadian dollar relative to other currencies of the world, Clearwater recently stopped paying their distributions. The decision faced by the financial director to determine the strategy of the company should take to enable it to recover its distribution. This is due to the choice between various financial and operational resources to hedge currency risks that brought the company to its current situation Background: Clearwater was founded in 1976 at Bedford, Nova Scotia as a local lobster distributer and later in 2002 went public. Clearwater Seafood harvests, processes, and distributes fresh and frozen fish and shellfish to sell worldwide. It holds major offshore rights to harvest clams, crab, lobster, scallops, and shrimp off the north eastern coast of Canada. Clearwater Seafood operates its own fleet of ships, along with off-shore and on-shore processing facilities. Foreign Exchange Risk: Foreign exchange risk is the risk to the value of one’s assets when it is valued in another currency. The exchange rate of a currency to another may be volatile. It is this change in value of the currency that gives rise to foreign exchange risk. Depreciation in the currency in which your assets are denominated will result in a lower value of your assets when measured in another currency compared to the period before depreciation. The majority of Clearwater’s customers are international customers. In 2005, majority of Clearwater’s sales were from overseas customers. The source of their foreign exchange risk is the payment method that the company implements. The customers are billed in their domestic currency rather than in Canadian dollars. Clearwater deals with customers from the US, Japan, Europe and Asia. The company receives payment from its international customers in their respective currency. When the Canadian dollar appreciates in relation to all these currencies, the money that Clearwater receives from their customers loses value. The higher the Canadian dollar appreciates, the less Canadian dollars Clearwater can convert to with the US dollars, euros or yen that  they receive from their customers. Risks associated with foreign exchange are partially mitigated by the fact Clearwater operates internationally, which reduces the impact of any country ­ specific economic risks on its business. Clearwater also uses forward exchange contracts to manage its foreign currency exposures. Clearwater’s sales denominated in U.S. dollars were approximately 55% of annual sales as on December 31st 2005. These forward contracts were such that a one-cent change in the U.S. dollar as converted to Canadian dollars would result in a $505,000 change in sales and gross profit. In addition, approximately 19% of 2005 annual sales were denominated in Euros. Based on the sales and hedges in place on December 31, 2005, a one-cent change in the Euro as converted to Canadian dollars would result in a $285,000 change in sales and gross profit. Also, 8% of 2005 annual sales were denominated in Japanese Yen. Based on 2005 annual sales, every one ­ twentieth of a cent change in the Yen as converted to Canadian dollars would result in a change of  ¥118,087,000 in sales and gross profit. It is clear that Clearwater faces significant foreign exchange risk and the implications of an adverse change in the currency conversions can be too huge for the company to endure. Business risk: Business risk is the possibility that a company will have lower than anticipated profits or the company will incur a loss. Business risk may influenced by numerous factors, including sales volume, per-unit price, input costs, competition, and overall economic climate and government regulations. Clearwater’s business depends on a continuing supply of product that meets its quality and quantity requirements. Water temperatures, feed in the water and the presence of predators all influence the level of the catch and harvesting locations are not necessarily consistently successful from year to year. The availability of seafood in Canadian and Argentinean waters is also dependent on the total allowable catch allocated to Clearwater in a given area. Although the totals allowable catch in these areas and Clearwater’s enterprise allocations have been largely stable, fishery regulators have the right to make changes in the total allowable catch based on their assessment of the resource from time to time. Any reduction of total allowable catches in the areas from which Clearwater sources seafood, or the reduction of stocks due to changes in the  environment or the health of certain species, may have a material adverse effect on Clearwater’s financial condition and results of operations. Resource risk is managed through adherence to the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (†DFO†) policies and guidelines. The guidelines, developed by DFO, are very often a cooperative effort between industry participants and DFO. Clearwater mitigates the risk associated with resource supply and competition through the diversification across species. Clearwater’s operating costs may be negatively affected by increases in inputs, such as energy costs, raw material and commodity prices. Clearwater uses fuel, electricity, air and ocean freight and other materials in the production, packaging and distribution of its products. Fuel and freight are two significant components of the costs of Clearwater’s products and the distribution thereof the inability of any of Clearwater’s suppliers to satisfy its requirements or a material increase in the cost of these inputs may have an adverse effect on Clearwater’s financial condition and results of operations. The seafood industry is highly competitive in all of the markets in which Clearwater participates. Some of Clearwater’s competitors have more significant operations within the marketplace, a greater diversification of product lines and greater economic resources than Clearwater and are well established as suppliers to the markets that Clearwater serves. Such competitors may be better able to withstand volatility within the seafood industry and throughout the economy as a whole while retaining greater operating and financial flexibility than Clearwater. There can be no assurance that Clearwater will be able to compete successfully against its current or future competitors or that competition will not affect Clearwater’s financial condition and results of operations. Recommendations for management: Foreign Exchange Risk: Clearwater did not completely offset the recent currency fluctuations with their hedge positions and they paid the price for it. It is recommended that they fully hedge all their foreign exchange positions. FPI is an example of a competitor in the industry who has benefited from doing so. FPI was largely unaffected by the currency fluctuation that badly affected Clearwater. This is justified by FPI’s increase in sales from 2003 to 2004  where Clearwater had corresponding drop in sales during the same period. It is also recommended that Clearwater switch its short call options to long call options. In its current short call position, Clearwater is the seller of the option and has no right to exercise the option. Clearwater is responsible to meet its obligations in the case the counterparty exercises the option at strike price. In a nut shell, under this short call position, Clearwater does not eliminate uncertainty on currency prices, its counterpart however does. Instead of this position, Clearwater should enter in long call options to hedge its foreign exchange risk. They should lock in prices to buy Canadian dollars in all the foreign currencies that they receive as payment such as US dollars, yen, euro, sterling and others. If the Canadian dollar were to appreciate, they would exercise the call option at the stipulated strike price and this would cut their losses of further appreciation. If the Canadian dollar were to depreciate, Clearwater would merely lose the price paid for the option premium. Overall, Clearwater benefits from this long call position regardless whether the exchange rate appreciates or depreciates as they have removed uncertainty in the exchange rate. Clearwater should also diversify its hedging strategies and enter into a matching receipts and payments strategy. This method involves offsetting receipts and payments. As a major part of their foreign exposure is to the US dollar, it is recommended that they rearrange some of their purchasing arrangement with its current domestic suppliers and switch to suppliers from the United States. By switching to American suppliers, they will be billed in US dollars. The US dollars that Clearwater receives from its American customers can be used to pay the bills that are denominated in US dollars. This directly nullifies any volatility in the US dollar to Canadian dollar exchange rate. Clearwater should enter into agreements with its large counterparties to receive payment in Canadian dollars. This will transfer the risk onto the other party’s head and will allow matching strategy to be implemented. This may not be possible for the smaller parties that owe Clearwater money. Another alternative would be for Clearwater to hedge their currency positions through investing in gold. It has been a common business practice for many years to use gold or other precious metals to hedge currency positions. The company could consider keeping gold in their portfolios to guard against economic downturns. As the seafood industry is  an industry that is primarily based on international trade, the success of any company in this industry will rely on the way the company manages its foreign exchange risk. Clearwater should expand its foreign exchange management program with qualified financial professional who have years of prior knowledge in hedging currency positions. Operating and Business risk: As compared to its competitors FPI and American Seafoods Group, Clearwater offers more high-value seafood products with higher prices. Therefore it is highly unlikely that the company has the ability to pass on any increases in fuel prices to their customers, without a negative impact on their profit margins. It is recommended that the company buys a fuel swap to hedge against fuel prices. In addition to that, the company could also consider buying a fuel call option. If the price of fuel increases, the company will receive a return on the option that offsets their actual cost of fuel. In terms of expanding its market, I believe that Clearwater should look into entering the Chinese market in the future. The increasing demand for high-value seafood in China has been fuelled by its growing middle class. The company could market its seafood products as being fresh and natural to beat the local Asian aquaculture competitors who currently dominate that market. In order to fund the fuel hedge as well as the China marketing cost, it is advised that Clearwater sell off surplus TACs. Clearwater currently owns the highest percentage of TACs in Canada. It is recommended that clam TACs be sold as Clearwater currently has full TAC ownership of clams with the largest quota of 44,000. However clams only make about 15.6% of the company’s sales which suggest that the profit margins on clams is relatively small compared to scallops or lobsters who have sales percentage of 31.3% and 22.5% respectively and TAC quotas of 10,275 and 720 respectively. I believe it is logical to make a small sacrifice to gain funding to hedge volatile fuel cost as well as fund marketing costs into a new segment. Greater good is expected at the cost of a small sacrifice. As the company currently faces difficulty in the foreign exchange market, this way of funding ignores currency rates as Clearwater will be selling their TACs to other Canadian companies which would be paying for the TACs in the Canadian dollars.

Education Is The Only Road Out Of Poverty - 891 Words

Growing up in an underdeveloped country like Guinea, where we lack everything, from books to technology, even qualify instructors is not an ideal situation to start a schooling life. You must have dedicated parents who stand by your side no matter what, push you through a complicated environment and guide you by their leadership to successfully graduate. I was lucky enough to have an educated Mom, devout Catholic, who only goes by the rules, as many parents did not go to school. Overwhelmingly the population was impecunious, looking daily for what to eat instead of being preoccupied with school. My family was a modest middle class, barely getting any extra money when needed. In fact, money wasn t the only problem; the books were scarce, and the ones on the market were outside scope. My mother as an educator had many books she kept for all her children to use as pleased. My father gave great importance to education, and his words were education is the only road out of poverty. It was his way of reminding us the sanctity of knowledge. Of course, my Mon was working as a teacher in a Catholic high school the only private school in town, but my dad was working twice harder just to keep us in school. To honor him we made a promise that every single child will graduate from high school which we all eventually did with honor roll, but unfortunately, he did not live long to see the accomplishment of his dream. Soon after my dad passing away with one income less we nowShow MoreRelatedThe Vision Of President Patil1476 Words   |  6 PagesIndia seems to be thriving on the surface, there are some deep seeded impediments to it maximizing its full potential and fully revolutionizing the lives of all its citizens. President Patil recognized the importance of making sure that growth not only occurred, but also that it benefitted the greatest amount of people in the process. 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In 2015, it was estimated that 21.6% of the Philippine population was in poverty (Philippine Statisti cs Authority, 2016). 8.1% were facing extreme poverty and were below the minimum income required to meet basic food needs (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2016). Most of the poor in the Philippines live in rural areas and work in the agriculture sector, mainly farming and fishing (Dy-Liacco, 2014). The poorest families often haveRead MorePoverty Essay1390 Words   |  6 PagesPoverty in simple terms is the lack of adequate money to meet basic needs including shelter, food, and clothing. According to World’s Health Organization, poverty is much more than lack of money, WHO describes poverty as: fear for what the future holds, living one day at a time, hunger, lack of shelter, lacking access to school and any reading skills, being sick and lacking means to access a doctor, being unemployed. 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The National Assessment of Adult Literacy states that literacy is â€Å"using printed and written information to function in society, to achieve one’s goals, and to develop one’s knowledge and potential†Read MorePoverty Is The State Of Been Poor961 Words   |  4 PagesWhat is poverty? Poverty is the state of been poor. Do you think it’s possible to overcome poverty, if you were raised in poverty? What would you consider as been poor? Could you replace your current state of living and live under a dollar a day? When I was a child I remember be en raised in a low-income neighborhood. I always had the audacity to complain to my parents about things I wanted. Growing up under Hispanic parents, I learned what hard work is. At a young age I believed we were poor, butRead MoreDevelopment Challenges Of The Vietnam War1193 Words   |  5 Pagesmillion were wounded and too many children were left as orphans. From 1960-1975 (during the war) life expectancy was very low. The average age varied between 59.07 - 61.54 years. Now they average to around 75.61 years. Having low levels of litracy and education can delay the economic development of a country. Vietnams literacy rate is, 15-24 years are able to read. The infant mortality rate per 1000 live births is 18 (last recorded in 2012). The population of Vietnam is approximately 89,708,900. VietnamRead MorePoverty in Afghanistan1663 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction I will discuss about the brief problems of poverty in Pakistan. Following are the list of some causes of occurring rapid increase of poverty in our country. - Increase in the rate of prices. - Load shedding reduced the production which result into unemployment. - Corruption and poverty. - Increase in road beggars due to shortage of money. - Pakistan is not a welfare state. A big question. - Lack of proper education causes increase at phenomenal rates. - Inflation rate in Pakistan

Essay on Universities Medieval And Mode - 675 Words

Universities: Medieval and Modern nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp; Universities have existed since the Twelfth Century AD and have been evolving ever since. There have been many changes however many things have remained unchanged throughout the years. The student and teacher roles have evolved as well as the general purpose of going to a university. Overall the academic aspects have changed more than the personal aspects of college. In 1200, the King of France issued a statement (118)* regarding Royal Privileges granted to the University of Paris. In order to protect the students, the King made a law that if any citizen sees harm being done to a student of the university he must testify truthfully to this. This law shows how important†¦show more content†¦Some students concentrate more on parties than their studies. Another letter (132) written in the Thirteenth Century is from a father to a son admonishing him about his laziness. The father states that his son, quot;prefers license to restraint and play to workquot;. A more serious issue that has arisen throughout the history of universities is that of rioting. A recount of the riot at Oxford (130)in the 13th century is reminiscent of a riot that occured at Kent State in the 1960s. These similarities merely show that human nature has not changed as much as some may think. Some major changes have taken place in society over time, regarding religion especially, which have affected the universities. As time goes on people as a whole have become more tolerant. Now society is more accepting of differences. In 1215 Robert Courcon issued the statutes for the University of Paris that stated, quot;The books of Aristotle on Metaphysics or Natural Philosophy, or the abridgments of these works, are not to be read, nor the writings of Master David of Dinant, the heretic Amauri, or the Spaniard Mauricius.quot; (119) These could not be read either because the authors were considered heretics by the church or because they expressed beliefs that did not coincide with the churchs beliefs. Today students study all kinds of writings not discriminating against those which contain beliefs that differ from their own. 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The motet developed from simple organum (a form of early polyphony based on an existing plainsong) into Mozart’s very famous â€Å"Ave Verum Corpus.† To truly understand what something has become, we must first see where itsRead MoreEssay about Christendom and The Song of Roland1119 Words   |  5 Pagesanonymous poet, composed in between late eleven century to twelfth century. This epic poetry holds an important place in the history of France and invention of Christendom. The Song of Roland is a cultural artifact that takes us to the journey of Medieval Europe, when re ligion becomes an important element for the formation of proto-Europe. Religion plays a crucial role in The Song of Roland and becomes the reason of criticism. Some readers might take this poem as a religious text, whereas, for someRead MoreEducation And Its Influence On American Education1254 Words   |  6 Pagesthey are still based around religion studies and incorporate it into every line of study at the university. 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This investigation will analyse responses to death in medieval religious culture. Relationships with death arguably varied between social classes, making it difficult to assert a generalised response to death. Death was commonplace amongst peasants and therefore few sources document it. Responses to death can be inferred by sermons, which were influential to the beliefs of lower classes. The nobility on the

Breastfeeding vs. Bottle Feeding Essay - 1410 Words

Nutrition and breastfeeding are subjects that can relate greatly to each other. New mothers are in a need of information regarding breastfeeding. Mothers receive the information and instructions on how to breastfeed at the hospital where they bear their children. That information is essential in the decision making process of whether to breastfeed or not. Still the clear choice for mothers everywhere is breastfeeding for several important life affecting reasons. Breast milk is highly nutritional, protects from various diseases, ideal in growth, promotes bonding, and is beneficial for the mother in a recovery process after labor. People tend to find other ways to feed the new born babies other then breastfeeding. That way is the usage†¦show more content†¦The nutrients in breast milk are easy for your baby to digest and absorb. About ten days after the birth mothers start to develop the traditional milk that is high in antibodies and helpful germs. Breast milk is rich in antibodies, which means infants are not going to catch a disease that easy. While breastfeeding, mothers are passing on immunities to their babies to fight various diseases. The protein called, Soluble CD14, helps the production of B cells which are needed in production of antibodies. Only recently have the researchers finally started to understand the functions of that protein. Antibodies that are produced by CD14 prevent babies from catching diseases such as heart related diseases, Crohns, Hodgkins, Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis (JRA), and Diabetes Mellitus. A study on a relationship between cancer and breastfeeding was made by professor Schwartzbaum, J. The professor researched on how breast milk prevents children from getting cancer earlier in life. The study shows that children that are breast fed for less then six months have a chance of getting cancer by age of fifteen. Childhood leukemia rate is also being reduced in children that are breastfed. This in formation was discovered by the University of Minnesota Cancer Center. Some believe that a higher IQ level in babies is cause by breastfeeding. Basically the report said the longer the child is breast fed the higher his//her IQ shall be,Show MoreRelatedBreastfeeding VS Formula Bottle-feeding Essay1112 Words   |  5 Pages Breastfeeding vs. Formula Bottle-feeding Every mother of a newborn baby must make a very personal decision when it comes to how they are going to feed their infant. I was faced with that decision 3 years ago when I had my first son who I named Ethen. It was one of the very hardest decisions I had to make. I had to consider all the good benefits of breast feeding as well as the benefits of formula bottle-feeding, but the good benefits of breastfeeding outnumbered the bottle feeding ones. I finallyRead More Breastfeeding vs. Bottle Feeding Essay2468 Words   |  10 Pagesexperts disagree with the fact that breastfeeding is the optimal choice for the infant. However, decreasing breastfeeding rates raise many questions as to why mothers are not choosing the best nutritional choice for their children. Despite breast milk being the obvious choice for infant feeding due to the health, psychological, and economic benefits, many mothers still decide to feed their infants formula due to lack of knowledge and support, difficulties wi th breastfeeding, and social embarrassment. ChangesRead MoreBreast Feding vs. Formula Feeding862 Words   |  4 PagesBreast Feeding vs. Formula Feeding There are advantages and disadvantages to both breastfeeding and formula feeding. Some things to consider when deciding which to choose are: cost, convenience, nutrition, and the health benefits to both the baby and to the mother. In terms of cost, an advantage to breastfeeding is that breast milk is free. Its estimated that breastfeeding can save you thousands of dollars a year, depending on the brand of formula that would have been used instead. 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Some women feel like breast feeding is always better, some women feel like bottle feeding is just the same. Breast feeding is usually alwaysRead MoreGuidelines Of Guidelines Regarding Milk Banks Essay1403 Words   |  6 Pagespersons. Texas requires its health department to provide guidelines regarding milk banks, and also requires health insurers to provide breastfeeding services to new mothers who are discharged early after delivery. Florida has several statutes encouraging breastfeeding information in various settings. State laws pertaining to breastfeeding are varied in their nature and scope. Leaders can provide mothers with relevant laws and related information, but should refrain from interpreting laws or offeringRead MoreThe Breast Vs. Bottle Debate1718 Words   |   7 Pages The Breast vs. Bottle Debate Deciding whether to formula feed or breastfeed ones baby is one of the biggest and most crucial decisions expectant and new parents will make before giving birth. Organizations such as World Health Organizations (WHO), American Medical Association (AMA), American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), and American Dietetic Association recommend breastfeeding as the best option for the newborn. Most of these organizations and other supporters of breastfeeding affirm that it defendsRead MoreThe Effect Of Breastfeeding On Ovarian And Breast Cancer Risks1298 Words   |  6 Pagesevidence that human milk feeding decreases the severity and incidence of a vast range of infectious diseases (Garner 1997). There are many benefits of breastfeeding reduces the ovarian and breast cancer risks and a reduction in other types of systemic health such as obesity, overweight, asthma and morbidity. In this way breastfeeding also becomes one of the main causes of benefits for the mothers (Horta 2013). In their report, WHO also recommends the exclusive breastfeeding until the infant is sixRead MoreCommunity Strategies Essay774 Words   |  4 Pagesmilk comes in before they start breast feeding. In the meanwhile they wish to feed their newborns formula from a bottle. Evidence-based practice supports breastfeeding from within one hour of birth until the child is one year old or older. In our institution we attempt cultural repatterning, that is working with the patient â€Å"to help†¦ her change cultural practices that are harmful† (Huber, 2009, p. 14). We try to encourage the women to attend free breast feeding classes prior to delivery and we haveRead MoreBreast Feeding Vs. The Bottle1326 Words   |  6 PagesBreast-feeding vs. The Bottle: The Decision is yours â€Å"Some mothers have to give up breastfeeding even though they want to breastfeed. To give up breastfeeding can be a sensitive issue in a time when breastfeeding is promoted as the healthiest for mother and child† (Larsen Kronborg, 2013, p. 848). The debate over whether breast-feeding is better than bottle-feeding or vice versa has been a debate for many years. With more and more research that is continuously being developed, the option to breast-feed

Radio free essay sample

Functions and graphs; limit and continuity; applications of derivative and integral. Conics; Polar coordinates; Convergence of sequence and series. Maclaurin and Taylor series. Partial derivatives. Vector calculus in Rn; vector analysis; theorems of Green, Gauss and Stokes. Complex numbers, analytic functions, Cauchy? s theorms; elementary functions; series expansions; calculus of residues and applications. Vector space; basis and dimension; linear transformation; range and kernel of a linear transformation; row deduction method and application to linear system of equations. Probability spaces; conditional probability and independence; random variables and probability distributions; marginal and conditional distributions; independent random variables; mathematical expectation; mean and variance; binomial, Poisson? s and normal distributions; sum of independent random variables; law of large numbers; central limit theorem, sampling distribution and test for mean using normal and students t-distribution; test of hypothesis; correlation and linear regression.

Radio Making Waves In America Essays - Radio Communications

Radio: Making Waves In America Radio-wave technology is one of the most important technologies used by man. It has forever changed the United States and the world, and will continue to do so in the future. Radio has been a communications medium, a recreational device, and many other things to us. When British physicist James Clerk Maxwell published his theory of electromagnetic waves in 1873, he probably never could have envisioned the sorts of things that would come of such a principle. His theory mainly had to do with light waves, but fifteen years later, a German physicist named Heinrich Hertz was able to electrically generate Maxwell?s ?rays? in his lab. The discovery of these amazing properties, the later invention of a working wireless radio, and the resulting technology have been instrumental to America?s move into the Information Age. The invention of radio is commonly credited to Guglielmo Marconi, who, starting in 1895, developed the first ?wireless? radio transmitter and receiver. Working at home with no support from his father, but plenty from his mother, Marconi improved upon the experiments and equipment of Hertz and others working on radio transmission. He created a better radio wave detector or cohere and connected it to an early type of antenna. With the help of his brothers and some of the neighborhood boys he was able to send wireless telegraph messages over short distances. By 1899 he had established a wireless communications link between England and France that had the ability to operate under any weather conditions. He had sent trans-Atlantic messages by late 1901, and later won the Nobel prize for physics in 1909. Radio works in a very complicated way, but here?s a more simple explanation than you?ll get from most books: Electromagnetic waves of different wavelengths are produced by the transmitter, and modulations within each wavelength are adjusted to carry ?encoded? information. The receiver, tuned to read the frequency the transmitter is sending on, then takes the encoded information (carried within the wave modulations), and translates it back into the sensory input originally transmitted. Many of the men who pioneered radio had designs for it. Marconi saw it as the best communication system and envisioned instant world-wide communication through the air. David Sarnoff ( later the head of RCA and NBC) had a vision of ?a radio receiver in every home? in 1916, although the real potential of radio wasn?t realized until after World War I. Before and during World War I, radio was used primarily to send long distance messages across continents and oceans. Reginald A. Fessenden made the first radio broadcast in the U.S. from an experimental station in Brant Rock, Massachusetts on Dec. 24, 1906. It was a Christmas eve program of music, and a speech from the inventor (Marconi). Fessenden?s first broadcast was for entertainment, but radio wasn?t to be used widely as such for some time. WWI proved radio?s value to the army, and later its commercial uses were realized by entrepreneurs who encouraged the public to buy receivers or ?radios.? New technologies made more portable, cheaper, radio devices that were much more appealing to the consumer. Advances such as vacuum tubes and regenerative circuits enabled smaller radios, and later transistors and printed circuits further decreased their size. These advances really helped to spread the use of the radio in America. The radio was affordable enough for the public once mass-production began on public-model radios around the late 1910s and early ?20s. As its popularity increased, commercial radio began to take off. Radio KOW in San Jose Ca. was the first commercial broadcast station to begin ?regular programming as early as 1912.? The station recognized as the first successful commercial broadcaster was KDKA in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania, going on the air in 1920 with the results of the presidential race between Harding and Cox. Their success led to the rapid growth of radio over the next two years, resulting in over 500 licensed stations by the end of 1922. Around the 1970s microcircuits replaced printed circuits. Plastics were put to use in the casing of the components, instead of a heavy wooden covering. Amplifiers of the radio currents enabled modern style speakers to be used to translate electrical impulses and